From electric vehicles and lithium-ion batteries to solar panels, drones and next-generation tech, nearly every clean technology depends on a steady supply of critical raw materials such as lithium, nickel and cobalt. As global demand accelerates, pressure on mineral supply chains is reaching unprecedented levels.
For Europe, this challenge is particularly acute. The EU relies heavily on imports for its most essential materials: South Africa supplies 41% of Europe’s primary manganese, while Chile covers nearly 80% of its processed lithium. Meanwhile, China controls about 70% of the global battery value chain, from raw material processing to final assembly—leaving Europe exposed to supply disruptions and geopolitical risks.
To strengthen resilience, scientists at the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC) are developing harmonised, science-based approaches for battery waste collection and recycling under the 2023 Batteries Regulation. Their goal: transform Europe’s dependence on foreign minerals into a circular, sustainable system built at home.
The Hidden Costs of Extracting Critical Minerals
Mining critical raw materials is costly, slow and environmentally intensive. Exploration alone can take years, with no guarantee that viable deposits will be found. Extraction comes with an even heavier footprint: producing just 1 kilogram of cobalt—an essential ingredient in many battery chemistries—requires around 250 kilograms of water and generates over 100 kilograms of waste.
Recycling, in contrast, offers a far more sustainable and secure pathway. Many advanced economies—including Japan, China and several U.S. states—have already enacted strong policies for electronics and battery recycling, especially for EV batteries. Europe has been a pioneer in this area, pushing legislation governing the full battery lifecycle, from raw-material sourcing to end-of-life recovery.
Still, industrial recycling capacity tells a different story. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the world’s top 20 companies for battery pre-treatment and material recovery are all based in China. The top three alone account for about 15% of global pre-treatment and nearly 20% of material recovery capacity. With China also dominating the battery gigafactory market, its lead is expected to continue: by 2030 it may still hold more than 75% of global material recovery capacity, compared to 10% for the U.S. and just 5% for the EU.
Urban Mining: Europe’s Untapped Resource
This is where urban mining—recovering valuable metals from electronic waste and used batteries—enters the picture. The world generates enormous amounts of e-waste each year, much of which contains higher concentrations of critical minerals than natural deposits.
Extraction from “urban mines” has a dramatically smaller environmental impact. For instance, producing a kilogram of cobalt from used Li-ion batteries requires around 100 kilograms of water—2.5 times less than mining it from the earth. The difference is even more significant for materials like nickel and lithium, which are integral to clean-energy supply chains.
The JRC estimates that secondary cobalt recovered from Europe’s own waste streams could meet up to 42% of EU demand by 2050. Yet today, a large portion of Europe’s battery waste is shipped abroad for processing. Lower labour costs and existing large-scale facilities in major producer countries make foreign recycling more economical.
Building Europe’s “In-House” Recycling Power
Bringing battery recycling back to Europe would unlock immense strategic benefits. It would strengthen supply security, reduce reliance on foreign partners, stimulate innovation and help meet the demanding targets of the EU Batteries Regulation. These include recovering 80% of lithium and 98% of cobalt from waste batteries by 2031.
To support this shift, the JRC has developed a common scientific framework to harmonise how battery recycling performance is measured across Europe. This unified approach is essential for driving innovation, reducing costs and ensuring consistent reporting and monitoring across the EU.
If implemented effectively, this framework can transform Europe’s growing stockpile of e-waste into a powerful domestic resource—fueling a resilient, competitive and environmentally sustainable battery ecosystem.
By embracing urban mining and keeping more raw materials within its borders, Europe has the opportunity to turn waste into strategic advantage, secure its clean-tech future and become a global leader in sustainable resource management.
