The global race for critical raw materials (CRMs) has highlighted Africa’s strategic role in supplying minerals essential for green technologies, electric vehicles (EVs), and industrial applications. Against this backdrop, the European Union (EU), China, and African nations are exploring opportunities for trilateral cooperation to secure resources while advancing local economic development and industrialization.
Europe’s Quest for CRM Independence
The EU depends heavily on China for its supply of CRMs, viewing this reliance as a strategic vulnerability for its economy, industries, and security. To reduce dependency, the EU has launched a series of initiatives, including the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) and the Global Gateway Initiative (GGI), alongside multilateral partnerships such as the Mineral Security Partnership (MSP).
The CRMA outlines the EU’s targets for reducing external dependence, while the Critical Minerals Action Plan emphasized strategic partnerships with resource-rich nations across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Despite these efforts, China remains dominant in midstream and downstream segments of CRM supply chains, including processing, refinement, and battery component manufacturing, making immediate decoupling a complex challenge.
Africa’s Strategic Mineral Landscape
Africa holds nearly 30% of the global CRMs essential for the energy transition. Key reserves include cobalt in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), lithium in Zimbabwe, bauxite in Guinea, manganese in South Africa and Gabon, graphite in Mozambique, and nickel in Madagascar. However, the continent’s capacity for advanced processing remains limited, with most minerals exported in raw form.
South Africa is a notable exception, refining approximately 75% of the world’s platinum-group metals (PGMs) and producing battery-grade nickel sulfate. The DRC and Zambia have some refining capabilities for copper and cobalt, yet most cobalt is exported to China for further processing into EV battery-grade cobalt sulfate.
Foreign-owned companies, especially Chinese firms, dominate upstream mining operations, while European presence is limited. Joint ventures with national state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are increasingly common, allowing host countries to assert greater control over mining operations and secure participation in local value chains.
China’s Expanding Role in African Mining
China has significantly increased its investments in African CRMs. In Zimbabwe, Chinese firms have constructed spodumene lithium concentrators to meet local processing requirements. In the DRC, companies like CMOC are expanding cobalt operations, while China MMG and JCHX Mining have acquired copper mines in Botswana and Zambia, reinforcing China’s upstream and downstream presence.
Beijing’s commitment to supporting African ambitions for local processing, reaffirmed at the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), reflects a recognition that extractive-only strategies are insufficient. Advanced local processing is now central to China-Africa partnerships.
Opportunities for EU-China-Africa Trilateral Cooperation
Despite geopolitical tensions, the potential for trilateral cooperation exists, particularly in midstream and downstream segments of CRM value chains, where processing, refinement, and battery production occur. Africa’s demand for local processing aligns with the EU and China’s strategic goals, offering an opportunity for collaborative ventures rather than confrontational approaches.
Case Study: Cobalt in the DRC
The DRC produces approximately 70% of the world’s cobalt, making it a critical node for global EV battery supply chains. A trilateral cooperation model could involve:
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DRC: Developing advanced cobalt processing facilities and workforce capacity.
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China: Partnering with DRC’s SOE Gécamines to operate processing units while maintaining market access.
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EU: Providing technical, financial, and infrastructure support, including energy projects and workforce training.
Logistical challenges could be addressed via the Lobito Corridor, linking the Lualaba mining province to the Angolan port of Lobito. Such cooperation ensures the DRC develops local industry, China maintains market access, and the EU secures a reliable supply of refined cobalt for its EV battery market.
This model could be adapted to other CRMs, such as lithium in Zimbabwe, provided there is sufficient mining output and infrastructure to justify large-scale investment.
Benefits of Cooperation
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Africa: Gains local processing capabilities, technological know-how, and workforce development.
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EU: Secures access to refined CRMs while promoting industrial resilience.
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China: Maintains strategic presence in resource-rich regions and fulfills African local processing demands.
Challenges and Considerations
Trilateral cooperation faces structural hurdles:
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Fragmented supply chains and asymmetries in economic and political capacities.
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Long timelines for mining and processing projects.
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Diverging industrial priorities, as the EU pursues decoupling from China while African countries focus on local value addition.
Despite these challenges, trilateral engagement could complement existing bilateral initiatives, with Africa taking the lead as a neutral partner capable of aligning interests between China and the EU.
Trilateral cooperation on critical raw materials offers a pathway for sustainable, mutually beneficial outcomes in Africa’s mining sector. By focusing on midstream and downstream activities—particularly EV battery production—Africa, the EU, and China can strengthen industrial capabilities, secure critical mineral supply chains, and enhance local value creation.
Success depends on strong public-private partnerships, robust policy frameworks, and effective management of technological, logistical, and financial challenges. With Africa positioned at the center of this evolving landscape, its leadership and strategic vision will determine whether trilateral cooperation becomes a transformative model for the global CRM industry.
